How Does Captivity Effect Family Relationships for Orcas

Review Article Special Issue Marine Biology

Orcas are social mammals

Marina Kachar,¹ Ewa Sawosz,² André Chwalibog³

^oneDepartment of Ecology Protection, Educons Academy, Serbia
²Department of Beast Nutrition and Biotechnology, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, Poland
³Department of Veterinary and Animate being Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Denmark

Correspondence: André Chwalibog, Department of Veterinary and Animate being Sciences, Academy of Copenhagen, Groennegaardsve j 3, 1870 Frederiksberg, Denmark, Tel +4540 9635 73

Received: June 21, 2018 | Published: July sixteen, 2018

Citation: Kachar M, Sawosz Due east, Chwalibog A. Orcas are social mammals. Int J Avian & Wild fauna Biol. 2018;three(4):291-295. DOI: 10.15406/ijawb.2018.03.00101

Download PDF

Abstruse

Afterward humans, orcas (Orcinus orcas) are the well-nigh widely distributed mammals on Earth.¹ They are incredibly constructive predators, ordinarily referred to every bit 'wolves of the sea.'^two Although they are frequently dubbed killer whales, they are really the largest fellow member of the oceanic dolphin family (Delphinidae).³ Given that they are well–adapted to whatever climate, they tin exist found in numerous aquatic locations⁴ including the Antarctic and Chill regions as well every bit in tropical areas.⁵ They are unrivaled oceanic apex predators, possessing a number of qualities that propose considerable intelligence.⁶ Following the sperm whale, orcas have the second largest brain of all oceanic mammals.⁷ Moreover, their highly evolved communication manners, usage of echolocation and compelling sleep patterns all adjure to the impressiveness of this group of marine mammals. However, they need to exist recognized and accepted as outstanding social creatures that can coexist with humans.

Keywords: killer whale, dolphin, beliefs, social habits, language

Introduction

Prototype from Andreas B. Heide (Barba.no)

Orcas are marine carnivores that are easily recognizable by the distinctive blackness and white coloring of their rounded bodies, forth with the dorsal fin in the center of their backs. They can grow to up to 7.7meters (females) and 9.0meters (males), and weigh up to 6 tons.^half-dozen In the wild, this warm–blooded mammal lives from 50 to 90years.^viii Depending on the pod to which they belong, orcas' dorsal fin may be tapered and pointed in a triangular way, long, or curved and rounded towards the finish. The dorsal fin is quite flexible in newborn orcas, but information technology stiffens with age. When a male orca begins to mature, its dorsal fin starts growing rapidly up to that point of resembling a female's dorsal fin, and it then starts to straighten out, regularly losing its curve and becoming more distinctive compared to the female fin. In the wild, an orca's dorsal fin is upright, but in captivity it frequently collapses to 1 side due to several possible reasons such every bit stress, lack of practice and dehydration. The dorsal fin is very important because it helps the orca to regulate its torso temperature. As orcas swim, the excess estrus is accumulated and released into the water and air via the dorsal fin.⁹

Orcas are born with a single blowhole (dissimilar the baleen whale, which has two blowholes).⁶ They cannot breathe when submerged and instead must breathe air above the water's surface using the blowhole at the acme of their heads, which effectively works similar a giant nostril.^eight The orca must quickly expel used air from its lungs at the surface, which produces the loud distinguishing audio or 'accident.'¹⁰ In virtually cases, orcas exhale in 20second intervals in succession (3–4times), and and so submerge for a longer menses of time.⁸ Orcas are able to control the flow of claret to their brains and hearts, which ensures that they do not suffer from a lack of oxygen while they are submerged.^x When swimming, orcas can reach incredible speeds (for their size) of approximately 40km/hour, rendering them one of the fastest marine mammals. Even so when cruising with their pod members, their speed is only about 5–10km/60 minutes.⁸

Orcas are known for mating all twelvemonth long, unlike other cetacean species. Males accomplish breeding maturity when they are nearly 5.6meters long, and females achieve breeding maturity when they are about 4.9meters long.¹¹ Female orcas accept relationships with multiple partners, while males do non brood within the aforementioned pod, which keeps the genetic pool very vibrant.^eight Thus, after maturation male orcas venture away from their family pod in search of females from other orca families, but they will always return. The mothers give nascence approximately every three to 10years, and their pregnancy lasts 17months, which is longer than any other marine mammal.^viii Calves are born about two.1meters long.¹² Orca calves are ane of the few animals usually built-in tail first.¹³ In her lifetime, a female orca may have four to six offspring.¹⁴ Orca calves nurse for almost one year, nearly five to ten seconds at a time, during the day and nighttime. A calf will remain with its female parent for at to the lowest degree two years, just information technology has been noted that many orcas live with their mothers for their unabridged lives.¹⁵ Information technology has been proven that separation betwixt mothers and calves is extremely stressful for these cetaceans.¹⁶

An impressive combination of high intelligence, outstanding hunting techniques, and tremendous physical power makes the orca one of the planet's leading predators. This complex creature has an array of tremendous social skills.^six Orcas have demonstrated captivating social habits, such every bit living in highly distinctive lifelong pods, likewise every bit exceptional memory and advice skills (amongst other qualities), which have enabled them to larn immense popularity amongst cetacean admirers.¹⁶ Their various interesting social habits, along with their communication patterns, render them surprisingly relatable to humans.¹⁷ Their brain is about four times the size of a human brain, weighing almost seven kilograms.^vii In analyzing their brains, researchers have developed various hypotheses regarding orcas' intelligence.¹⁶ Based on observations both in captivity and in the wild, orcas seem to exhibit a wide range of emotions, including frustration, anger, fear, joy and even self–awareness, which makes them enthralling to detect as social mammals.¹⁸

Misconceptions concerning the proper noun

Orcinus orca is 1 of the oceanic dolphin family's 35 species, and probably evolved around 11 meg years ago.¹⁹ Despite having morphological similarities with false killer whales (Pseudorca crassidens), airplane pilot whales (Globicephala melas) and pygmy killer whales (Feresa attenuate), its closest relatives are the snub fin dolphin (Orcaella heinsohni) and Irrawaddy dolphin (Oracaella brevirostris).²⁰ The reason that people refer to orcas as whales is because sailors historically called these marine mammals 'whale killers' afterward witnessing them preying on whales and other marine mammals.^21,22 In spite of their ferocious nickname 'killer,' they have never been known to show assailment to humans in the wild.

Life in the pod

These extraordinary mammals tend to swim in body of water depths of between twenty–60meters, and constantly move in remarkably well–balanced and permanent pods, led past older females.²³ Researchers have identified 3 types of pods: resident (primarily residing in ane area); transient (traveling over a relatively wide area); and offshore pods (roaming the deep blue waters). Large differences can be seen in the behaviors, hunting patterns, and communication and dietary habits betwixt singled-out pods.²⁴ Resident pods are less aggressive, and they primarily eat fish, whereas transient pods are far more aggressive and tend to eat bigger marine species.²⁵ Orcas travel and hunt like wolves and lions in matriarchal social structures that may incorporate l or more than individuals.²⁶ Some pods combine to form so–called groups of more than 100orcas.^six The individuals inside the pods swim in relatively shut proximity to one another, around 100meters autonomously.²⁷ The orcas inside the pods commonly comprise a group of diverse generations of related individuals, made up of approximately 20% calves, twenty% males and 60% females.⁹ The social group (pod) has established hierarchies,²⁴ with a social construction that has been considered one of the near stable of any fauna species.²⁸ The development of new pods tin take generations due to the animals' long lifespan.²⁹

Even though they can regularly be spotted near to coastlines, orcas are known to dive to depths of about 300meters in search of food.²⁹ Depending on their diet and historic period, they can consume upwardly to x% of their body weight every day.^10,30 Orcas are known for eating whatsoever animal they may meet, and as such exist at the top of the nutrient chain every bit apex predators: their meals may consist of whales, seals, sharks, squid, fish, other dolphins, and in some cases, birds.¹⁵ The pod tin can swim up to 160kilometers in i day in search of nutrient.³¹ Having worked together to catch prey, orcas will share their meal with the members of the pod, especially with the youngest pod members. Their hunting techniques may vary depending on the pod, but the unity of the pod is constant even during hunts.^ix Their close–knit bonds, in add-on to their exceptional hunting methods, make these marine mammals one of the most feared in the fauna kingdom.³² Information technology has been documented that pod members volition forcefulness large numbers of fish into one area of the ocean, and volition and so have turns feeding. All the same, even more than compelling is the fact that they may beach themselves (slide onto the shore) to scare penguins or seals into the water for other pod members to hunt.³³ In polar regions, orcas are known to knock down the blocks of water ice on which seals rest in order to chase them. In club to perform such an act, they use their bodies to create forceful waves, causing the seals to slide into the water. When hunting humpback whales in Australian waters, orcas are known to cooperate, separating mothers from calves in order to expedite the hunt.³⁴ Information technology has been documented that orcas utilise their prevailing tails, called 'flukes,' as weapons during their hunts. Furthermore, pod members may even leave their pods for a few hours in search of casualty, returning later on.³⁵ This is interesting because in studying orcas' beliefs, scientists have realized that in that location seems to exist very little or nigh no migration due to water temperatures or weather; they just tend to venture into different water areas if food becomes deficient. Given that well-nigh cetaceans demonstrate standard migration patterns, this beliefs renders orcas rather distinctive.³⁶

Prototype from Andreas B. Heide (David Gonzalez/barba.no)

Orcas are very similar to humans in their care for their offspring. Calves are non only known to receive education from their mothers, merely also subject and 'penalty,' which helps make them relatable to humans. Signs of a female orca's 'anger' include potent head movements, hitting their tail in the h2o, emitting unusual noises using their teeth, and a range of other rather intimidating trunk movements.³⁷ Mothers grade exceptionally close bonds with their sons.³⁸ If a mother orca is alive but has no surviving sons, she volition swim not just with her daughters simply with her grandchildren as well.³⁹ The adult daughters (who might have their ain offspring), may split from their mother to a certain extent, but will not travel far from her.⁸ Orcas are very protective of their immature: it has been documented that adolescent females ofttimes assistance their female parent in caring for the young. Such 'babysitting' by young females prepares them for the subsequently responsibility of becoming a mother. Males within the pod are besides known to babysit.⁴⁰ The orca is one of merely 4 species on the planet in which females routinely experience menopause; indeed, most animals retain the ability to reproduce until death. The other three species that experience menopause and stop breeding years before the end of their lives are humans, short–finned pilot whales, and false killer whales.⁴¹

Social habits

In studying orcas' lifestyles, many marine biologists take come to the conclusion that these animals possess their own culture, akin to humans.^42,43 This conclusion is based on the fact that various pods accept diverse personalities, behaviors, means of communication and diets; moreover, social contact and bonding with other pod members are highly valued. Information technology has been noted that orcas enjoy playing for a long time. An activity they seem to adore is chosen breaching, which is an entertaining operation whereby the orca jumps out of the h2o and splashes the surface with its entire body. The reason for this activity is not clear, but it is quite incredible to watch. Breaching probably constitutes a means of communicating, too equally providing a way of shaking off parasites and gaining a better view of their surroundings (for potential prey), as well every bit merely for fun.^eight Tail flapping (the human action of slapping the water surface with the fluke) is some other interesting habit considering it is never exhibited in exactly the same fashion: sometimes the movement is careful and gentle, but it can besides represent a sudden and loud crevice through the air and h2o.^sixteen Spy–hopping is another orca behavior that receives considerable attention from tourists.⁶ It consists of an orca property itself vertically in the water and kicking with its tail (fluke) in order to hold its head above the h2o surface. Some orcas can exercise this behavior for several minutes, and it is most ofttimes seen around Vancouver Island in British Columbia, Canada.⁹ Orcas have also been spotted rubbing themselves on rocks in club to remove dead pare cells,¹⁶ as smooth skin increases their swimming efficiency.

Epitome from Andreas B. Heide (Barba.no)

Encephalon

The orca's skull is oval–shaped and contains one of the biggest brains on Earth.^seven An orca's brain is ane of its well-nigh remarkable instruments used in everyday life, withal it is not completely explored. Many studies take indicated that orcas possess a remarkable photographic memory. In tests conducted on orcas in captivity, the animals were able to recall testing patterns upward to 25years after first being conducted.⁴¹ Nevertheless, what makes their brains so captivating is the fact that areas of the brain that are known to encompass emotional idea and response are larger (percentage wise) in orcas than in any other animal.^ten Neurologists explain that the area called the limbic system is responsible for processing all emotions. The orca's encephalon contains an extra lobe of tissue immediately next to the limbic organisation and neocortex called the paralimbic lobe, which humans do non possess. The paralimbic lobe is an outgrowth of the areas of the brain that are known to control advice and social emotions in all other mammals, rendering it possible that orcas experience feelings, emotions and social connections such every bit love, joy and grief on a level that human beings cannot even comprehend. It is certain that orcas can understand hand signals, symbols on flashcards, and vocal cues when interacting with humans.⁴⁴ Furthermore, it has been proven that orcas tin empathise numbers and can recognize themselves in a mirror.⁴¹

Sleep patterns

Orcas can be found in the oceanic surface layers while sleeping. They sleep from v to viii hours a day. However, there is a large departure in the ways in which orcas sleep in comparison to humans. Given that their slumber is unihemispheric (also described as 'i–sided slumber,' which in reality ways they are just half–asleep), their animate patterns differ from humans, who breathe unconsciously during slumber.⁴⁵ Orcas are conscious breathers, which accounts for why they tin can never fall completely asleep. The orca shuts down 1 hemisphere of its brain besides as the contrary centre controlled by that hemisphere, while the other hemisphere and eye remain alert. This makes them awake and asleep simultaneously. EEG studies with dolphins have helped researchers to determine this kind of sleep.⁴⁶ If the orca were to become into an unconscious state of deep sleep, information technology would suffocate and drown. An interesting fact is that orca calves spend the kickoff months of their lives broad awake, with no sleep whatever.⁴⁰ Indeed, developed orcas can be seen sleeping while the immature calves go on pond nearby.⁴⁷ There are many reasons behind this blazon of 'non–sleeping' among orca calves. One is that this could be a way of staying condom from potentially harmful predators while they are withal young; after all, mortality rates are loftier amongst newborn orcas. The second cardinal reason is that these infants demand to go along their bodies warm through constant activeness until they abound older and develop blubber.⁴⁰ Even during slumber, members of a pod will course a very tight circumvolve, synchronizing their movements and breathing. Resting in such a way also helps the pod members to avert boats at a time when just half of their brain is awake.⁴⁶

Echolocation and language

Orcas take very well–developed senses. They can hear an aplenty range of sounds, possess beauteous vision in and out of the water, and their pare is very sensitive to the touch.⁴⁸ Like most dolphins, orcas use a biological sonar chosen echolocation to communicate, but also to capture prey when vision cannot be used.⁶ During their underwater search for food (or during the dark), echolocation facilitates the location of objects and prey.⁴¹ Orcas will brand a audio that travels through the water. When the sound wave hits an object, it bounces dorsum and returns to the orca. Using echolocation, orcas can detect other animals or objects in the surface area, equally well as their size and shape. The clicks emitted through a fatty organ in the forehead (called the melon) hit objects and bounce back to the orca with important information.⁶ Moreover, due to the fact that marine mammals are able to detect echolocation, orcas can decrease the clicks they emit when hunting, so as to not advertise their presence.³⁸

The and then–called orca linguistic communication is i of the well-nigh circuitous within any creature species.⁸ The calls that orcas produce are as loud as jet plane engines, making communication possible at all times, regardless of distance between the animals.⁴⁹ Every pod 'sounds' very different, hence the noises they produce are feature only to their pod.⁴⁸ They communicate with each other through very distinctive whistles and definite calls, in addition to low frequency pops.⁵⁰ The single blowhole at the superlative of the caput is used not but to breathe, but also to communicate, constantly chattering amid themselves.^17,51 Phonic lips are delicate folds of skin inside the blowhole, which make the orca able to create different communicative clicks. Whistle sounds are produced past the larynx (enabling them to create more than than one sound at a time), since they practise not have vocal cords.⁴⁹ Orcas utilize their jaws to make clapping sounds, which tin can be heard throughout the water.⁴⁹ In possessing their own dialect of sounds, each pod fellow member can recognize their pod from about 12 kilometers away based on specific calls.³¹ Whistles are used for private and shut–range advice, while pulsed calls are used for long–range communication. Learning their mother'due south dialect is a slow process for the baby orca. The young orca needs about two years of do to accomplish a full repertoire of sounds. Mothers have been recorded using uncommonly various sounds when communicating with their offspring ('baby talk'), in contrast to the sounds they use to communicate with adult members of the pod.⁸ Even though they have their own pod language, when they talk to other pods they apply a more than communal language.⁹ Just like people, orcas that live corking distances apart possess completely different dialects. An example is the results obtained from an assay of Norwegian and Icelandic orca pods: 23 unlike calls fabricated past Norwegian and 24 dissimilar calls made by Icelandic orcas were distinguished, still the 2 populations did not share any of the same calls.⁵² It has been observed that orcas accept specific means of communicating with people besides. In the wild, it has been recognized that orcas are far more cooperative with humans, as proven in the instance of the orcas of Eden, Australia. This finding was documented in the 1840s by whaling overseer Sir Oswald Brierly in his all-encompassing diaries.⁵³ A group of orcas off the coast of Eden assisted in whale hunting. The orcas would find target whales, lead them into a bay, and then alert the whalers of their presence in order to help take hold of them. The leader of the orcas was named Old Tom, and he would be amidst the first to alert the human whalers of the presence of whales by breaching or tail slapping at the mouth of the Kiah River. The whalers would kill the whales and permit the orcas feed on the whales before bringing in the whales. Thus, this relationship was conspicuously exceptionally interdependent.

Epitome from Andreas B. Heide (Barba.no)

Conclusion

Orcinus orca is certainly one of the finest specimens of marine wildlife. These fully aquatic mammals spend their lives underwater in highly impressive societies, making them i of the most social mammals on Earth. Orcas are incredibly intelligent ocean animals with a corking sense of survival. They are likewise one of the most socially bonded creatures. We can certainly learn a lot from these noteworthy marine mammals, such as the ability of unity, strong family ties and emotions. Indeed, orcas need to exist understood and acknowledged by humans as outstanding social creatures that coexist with humanity.

Acknowledgements

Nosotros are very grateful to Andreas B. Heide–a marine biologist from Norway and the captain of the sailing yacht Barba, also Mathew Ferraro and David Gonzalez from Way Due north Films–for providing us with the fascinating images of orcas.

Conflict of interest

The author declares no conflict of interest.

References

1. Riesch R, Barrett–Lennard LG, Ellis GM, et al. Cultural traditions and the evolution of reproductive isolation: ecological speciation in killer whales? Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. 2012;106(i):one–17.
2. National Geographic. An orca photographed at SeaWorld in Orlando, Florida.
3. Reynolds Iii JE, Odell DK, Rommel SA. Marine Mammals of the World. In Biology of Marine Mammals. Washington: Smithsonian Establishment Press; 1999.
4. The IUCN Ruby Data Volume. Killer Whale Orcinus Orca (Linnaeus, 1758). In Dolphins, Porpoises and Whales of the World. Cambridge: The IUCN Ruby-red Book Data, IUCN Gland; 1991. 240 p.
5. Wilson DE, Reeder DM. Mammal Species of the Earth: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference. 3^rd ed. Johns Hopkins University Press; 2005.
6. Ford JK. Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals. 2nd ed. San Diego: Bookish Press; 2008.
7. Spear Grand. How smart are killer whales? Orcas have the second–biggest encephalon of all marine mammals. 2010.
8. Animal Facts Encyclopedia.
9. Ford KB, Ellis GM, Balcomb KC. Killer Whales: The Natural History and Genealogy of Orcinus Orca in British Columbia and Washington. Vancouver BC: UBC Printing; 2000.
10. Whale facts: marine mammal facts and information.
11. MarineBio. Orcas (Killer Whales), Orcinus orca. USA.
12. The Columbia Encyclopedia. 6th ed. Killer Whale.
13. SeaWorld Parks & Amusement. Habitat & distribution.
14. J Anderson. Killer Whales. Marine Science. 2003.
15. A Bradford. Orcas: Facts most killer whales. Live Science. 2014.
16. Anderson R, Waayers R, Knight A. Orca behavior and subsequent aggression associated with oceanarium confinement. Animals. 2016;6(viii):i–15.
17. Tyack PL. Advice and cognition. In Biology of Marine Mammals. Washington: Smithsonian Establishment Press; 1999.
18. Rose North. Killer Controversy: Why Orcas Should No Longer Be Kept in Captivity. Washington: Humane Order International and The Humane Lodge of the Usa; 2011.
19. Carwardine Chiliad. Killer Whales. London: BBC Worldwide; 2001.
20. Leduc RG, Perrin W, Dizon A. Phylogenetic relationships amidst the delphinid cetaceans based on full cytochrome b sequences. Marine mammal science. 2006;xv(three);619–648.
21. Mathews L. The Natural History of the Whale. New York: Columbia Academy Press, Weidenfeld and Nicolson; 1978.
22. Ford J. Our changing relationship with the killer whale. In Killer Whales: The Natural History and Genealogy of Orcinus Orca in British Columbia and Washington. Seattle: UBC Printing; 1994. xi p.
23. Robeck TR, Willis K, Scarpuzzi M, et al. Comparisons of life–history parameters betwixt free–ranging and captive killer whale (Orcinus orca) populations for application toward species management. Journal of Mammology. 2015;96(5):1055–1070.
24. Stiffler 50. "Smithsonian.com," August 2011.
25. Kirkevold BC, Lockard JS. Behavioral Biological science of Killer Whales. Evolution & human behavior. 1991;12(i);75–76.
26. Killer Whale. a–z animals.
27. Estes J, Demaster D, Doak D, et al. Whales, Whaling, and Ocean Ecosystems. California: Academy of California Press; 2007.
28. Ford JK. Killer Whale: Orcinus orca. In Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals. 3^rd ed. San Diego: Academic Press; 2002. p. 669–665.
29. Parsons E. An Introduction to Marine Mammal Biology and Conservation. 1st ed. Burlington: Jones & Bartlett Learning; 2012.
30. Heintzelman DS, A World Guide to Whales, Dolphins, and Porpoises, Tulsa, Oklahoma: Winchester Press, 1981.
31. WDC. Facts about orcas. UK.
32. J Kennedy. Killer whale or orca (orcinus orca). Animals and Nature. 2017.
33. J. Silverman. Why are orca chosen killer whales? howstuffworks.
34. B Holmes, Orcas seen in unique grouping deadfall–and–kill assail on dolphins. New scientist. 2015.
35. Invasion of the killer whales the killer whale's weapon—its brain. NATURE. 2014.
36. J Durban, R Pitman. Antarctic killer whales make rapid, round–trip movements to subtropical waters: bear witness for physiological maintenance migrations? Biology Messages. 2011;8 (two):274–277.
37. Killer whale social structure. Killer–whale.org.
38. J Mann, RC Connor, PL Tyack et al. Cetacean Societies Field Studies of Dolphins and Whales. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press; 2000.
39. Orca social organization. Orca Lab.
40. Lyamin O, Pryaslova J, Lance Five, et al. Brute behaviour: Continuous action in cetaceans after nascency. Nature. 2005;435(7046):1177.
41. Killer whale mammal. Encyclopedia Britannica. 2008.
42. J Heimbuch. 5 surprising facts almost orcas. Mother Nature network. 2016.
43. C Barras. Orcas are first non–humans whose development is driven by culture. New Scientist. 2016.
44. L Crawford. Killer Whales are not–human being persons. Greyness Matters. 2013.
45. J Light-green. How Practise Killer Whales Sleep? Sciencing. 2017.
46. Thousand Gastone Mascetti, Unihemispheric sleep and asymmetrical sleep: behavioral, neurophysiological, and functional perspectives. Nat Sci Sleep. 2016;8:221–234.
47. Due south Chanvallon, C Blois–Heulin, R de Latour, et al. Spontaneous approaches of divers by gratuitous–ranging orcas (Orcinus orca): age–and sex–differences in exploratory behaviours and visual laterality. Scientific Reports. 2017;viii:i–7.
48. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. NOAA fisheries.
49. Orca advice. OrcaLab.
50. R. Wellard, C Erbe, 50 Fouda, et al. Vocalisations of Killer Whales (Orcinus orca) in the Bremer Canyon, Western Australia. PLOS ONE. 2015;10(9):one–xix.
51. L Dayton. Killer whales communicate in distinct. Dialects. 1990.
52. Communication & echolocation. SeaWorld Parks & Entertainment.
53. Clode D. Killers in Eden, The Story of a Rare Partnership Betwixt Men and Killer Whales. 2^nd ed. Melbourne: Museum Victoria; 2011.

©2018 Kachar, et al. This is an open admission commodity distributed under the terms of the, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and build upon your piece of work non-commercially.

bowenconcephas.blogspot.com

Source: https://medcraveonline.com/IJAWB/orcas-are-social-mammals.html

Share this post